Publications

Threshold effects of extreme heat on schooling and child labor in rural Bangladesh

Identifying threshold effects of extreme heat is key to understanding the true scale of climate-related risks to human capital development. This paper investigates how extreme heat shapes adolescent schooling and labor outcomes in rural Bangladesh, combining household survey data on adolescents with high-resolution temperature records to estimate the effects of prior-year, cumulative, and early-life heat exposure. We identify a precise temperature threshold at 36°C, above which each additional day reduces school attendance by 3.1 percentage points and increases child labor by 2.5 percentage points. Below this threshold, moderate heat (30-36°C) shows minimal single-year effects, though cumulative exposure over three years reveals significant negative impacts, indicating limited household adaptation. Effects are disproportionately concentrated among girls, who shift primarily toward household work rather than wage labor. Three interconnected channels drive these effects: heat-induced income shocks (11% reduction in household income), increased domestic labor demands from heat-related illness, and restrictive gender norms that amplify these impacts by magnifying girls’ household responsibilities. Extending the analysis to early-life conditions, exposure during the first 1,000 days also reduces adolescent schooling probability by 3.4-3.8 percentage points, with strongest effects at ages one and two. Boys show slightly larger early-life effects, contrasting with girls’ greater vulnerability to contemporaneous exposure, suggesting distinct mechanisms operating through biological development versus gendered household labor allocation. The findings point to both immediate income-mediated responses and long-term developmental pathways, with implications for temperature-triggered social protection, school infrastructure investments, and early-life health interventions.

Measuring food fortification coverage in household surveys: Formative research findings from Bangladesh and Ethiopia

Background
Large-scale food fortification (LSFF) is a cost-effective approach used in most countries to address widespread micronutrient deficiencies. Understanding who consumes fortified foods is challenging as these foods are often undetectable by design. The objective of this work was to refine survey items used to measure LSFF coverage for their potential use in routine multitopic household surveys.

Methods
In Bangladesh and Ethiopia, we interviewed shop vendors (n=108), program officers (n=28), and women beneficiaries of safety net programs (n=67). Shop observations assessed availability, type, brand, and fortification labeling for food vehicles (oil, wheat flour, salt, and rice). Key informant interviews were used to understand practices related to food acquisition/use and fortification knowledge. Cognitive interviewing techniques were used to refine questions from the Fortification Assessment Coverage Toolkit (FACT), with follow-up prompts to identify comprehension, retrieval, judgment, and response errors.

Results
Market observations revealed many types and brands of food vehicles, especially of rice in Bangladesh (35 types, 220 brands). Nearly all oil and salt, but not wheat flour in both countries or rice in Bangladesh were labeled as fortified. Program officers and women had limited knowledge about fortified foods. The concept of brand was not well understood, and women often could not remember the brand they last purchased. Modifications to the FACT survey items reduced cognitive errors. A set of four questions can capture household coverage of food vehicle and fortifiable food vehicle use.

Conclusions
Correct phrasing of key concepts as understood by respondents is essential to producing reliable estimates of LSFF coverage. In the absence of cheap, field-friendly technologies to test food samples, and given limited identifiable features of fortified foods, estimating coverage of fortification programs in household surveys remains challenging but worthy of further investigation.

2023 Social Accounting Matrix for Bangladesh

The 2023 Bangladesh Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) follows IFPRI's Standard Nexus SAM approach, by focusing on consistency, comparability, and transparency of data. The Nexus SAMs available on IFPRI's website separates domestic production into 42 activities. Factors are disaggregated into labor, agricultural land, and capital, with labor further disaggregated across three education-based categories. The household account is divided into 10 representative household groups: Rural and urban households across per capita consumption quintiles. Nexus SAMs support the improvement of model-based research and policy analysis in developing countries and allow for more robust cross-country comparisons of national economic structures, especially agriculture-food systems.

Brick kilns and agricultural productivity in Bangladesh: Evidence from satellite data and a natural experiment

Bangladesh’s brick kiln industry plays a critical role in supplying construction materials for rapid urbanization. However, the sector remains largely informal and weakly regulated, with widespread extraction of fertile topsoil and substantial emissions of particulate matter and black carbon. These practices raise growing concerns about long-term environmental degradation, agricultural productivity, and food security.

This policy brief summarizes new national-scale evidence on the impacts of brick kiln expansion on agricultural productivity in Bangladesh. Using satellite-based vegetation data covering more than two decades and a newly constructed geospatial inventory of brick kilns, the study provides causal estimates of how kiln establishment affects vegetation health and crop productivity over time.

Labor market and gender impacts of agricultural mechanization: Evidence from Bangladesh's combine harvester subsidy program

Bangladesh's Phase III agricultural mechanization subsidy program (2020–2024) distributed over 35,000 machines worth BDT 1,595 crore (USD 163 million), including nearly 9,000 combine harvesters (CHs) that accounted for 84% of machinery expenditure. Earlier causal econometric analysis suggests that high-allocation CH areas saw 6-13% yield gains, 38-70% lower labor costs, and 12-26% lower production costs. In this note, we explore the distributional consequences of subsidized combine harvesters, particularly along gender lines. As a result of the program, self-employment in agriculture increases by 5.3 percentage points; men shift from wage labor to own-account farm work linked to mechanized operations. Female self-employment in agriculture declines by 2.6 percentage points; overall female employment probability falls by 1.8 percentage points. Unlike men, women do not transition into non-agricultural employment, indicating limited capacity to absorb displaced female workers. Among those who remain self-employed, women increase their time allocation substantially—suggesting that while fewer women participate, those who do work more hours, likely in livestock and fisheries. Foreign migration increases by 6.1 percentage points in high-mechanization areas, suggesting households use freed labor for overseas opportunities.

Impact of NGOs on women's empowerment and voice in Bangladesh

Bangladesh continues to experience persistent gender inequalities shaped by cultural, religious, and social norms. Within its patriarchal social structure, women’s roles are commonly limited to reproductive work or household-based productive activities. These tasks are essential to family well-being but unpaid, undervalued, and routinely overlooked compared to men’s work (Efroymson et al., 2007). These norms have historically constrained women’s visibility, mobility, and participation in the public sphere.

The expansion of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) marked an important shift in this landscape. Bangladesh’s NGO sector is heterogeneous, with diverse organizational structures, management styles, and ideological orientations that span both service-delivery and movement-based models (Kabeer, 2002). The rapid growth of NGOs starting in the 1980s is driven largely by increases in donor funding, which signaled a move away from earlier approaches focused on promoting political mobilization and accountability of government toward more service-oriented delivery systems (Rahman, 2006). Over the last decades, many of these service-delivery organizations have incorporated advocacy and rights-based strategies into their work (Nazneen, 2008). Through these evolving programmes, NGOs highlighted and strengthened the contributions of underprivileged women as economic actors and active participants in development and political process. However, despite this progress, there is still no clear empirical evidence from Bangladesh that directly links the presence of NGOs to improvements in women’s agency, voice, and empowerment.

Show me the money! Experimental evidence on preferences for cash vs. digital payment

In places such as rural Bangladesh, cash is the dominant medium for payments despite potential benefits of digital payments. We offer survey respondents an incentive-compatible choice for compensation: 200 Taka cash or randomly varied mobile money amounts (200-400 Taka). Only eight percent chose digital payment at parity and respondents exhibit an average willingness-to-pay of 43 percent of the payment value to receive cash payment. This preference persists across demographics, including among mobile money account holders. Within-household analysis reveals that 77 percent of the effect stems from individual-level rather than household-level factors, highlighting the importance of demand-side barriers on digital payments.

Formative research in Ethiopia and Bangladesh: Strengthening household survey measures of maternal micronutrient supplementation in low- and middle-income countries

Background
As countries transition from iron folic acid (IFA) to multiple micronutrient supplements (MMS) for pregnant women, they need accurate data on who is being reached with these interventions. The aim of our formative research in Ethiopia and Bangladesh was to design updated household survey questions, response options, and visual aids to measure coverage of prenatal micronutrient supplements.

Methods
In Phase I, we landscaped health providers and retailers to identify prenatal micronutrient products available in each country and interviewed currently pregnant women (CPW) and recently delivered women (RDW) about how they differentiated among micronutrient products. In Phase II, we used these findings to draft survey questions and visual aids. In Phase III, we iteratively tested and refined the draft tools through cognitive interviews with women.

Results
The total number of study participants, including CPW, RDW, healthcare workers, and retailers, was 73 in Ethiopia and 132 in Bangladesh. Women in both contexts distinguished among micronutrient products based on color, shape, packaging, and perceived purpose. In cognitive tests, women generally understood the English term “iron” as a catch-all term for any iron-containing supplement. No specific term for multivitamin or MMS was consistently recognized by women. Shorter recalls of 7 days or 1 month for adherence were feasible for respondents.

Conclusions
It is challenging to identify terms and images that help women distinguish between supplement types. The final set of questions are feasible for adaptation and use in multi-topic surveys, in contexts with MMS but require validation.

Combine harvester subsidies and agricultural mechanization in Bangladesh: Recommendations for reform

This brief summarizes findings from a recent report1 on Bangladesh's Phase III agricultural mechanization support program (2020–2024). The program distributed over 35,000 subsidized machines worth BDT 1,595 crore (USD 163 million). Combine harvesters (CHs) accounted for 84% of program value, making them the focus of this analysis. Drawing on administrative data, a survey of 979 Machinery Service Providers (including 400 CH MSPs), panel data from over 2,000 Boro rice-producing households, and 128 qualitative interviews, the report examines program impacts and identifies critical implementation gaps.

Nudging farmers toward disease-free shrimp technology with financial incentives: Experimental evidence from Bangladesh

Price discounts are a common policy tool to promote agricultural technology adoption in low-income settings, yet their effectiveness may be limited when farmers face uncertainty or have access to familiar alternatives. We test this through a randomized controlled trial with shrimp farmers in southwestern coastal Bangladesh, a region highly exposed to climate shocks. The government promotes Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) post-larvae (PL)—certified as disease-free—to reduce high mortality in shrimp farming. Farmers were randomly offered varying discount levels for two SPF-PL types, differing in size uniformity and market price (proxies for quality), with the highest discount reducing their prices to parity with conventional non-SPF PL. We find no significant effect of discounts on adoption of the lower-priced Mid-grade SPF-PL, characterized by less size uniformity. In contrast, discounts significantly increased adoption of the higher-priced, more uniform Premium-grade SPF-PL, raising uptake by 10–19 percentage points among active shrimp farmers. Larger discounts did not yield higher adoption than smaller ones, indicating diminishing returns to discount generosity. Heterogeneity analyses reveal behavioral and contextual mechanisms: prior exposure to Mid-grade SPF-PL reduced its subsequent adoption but increased responsiveness to Premium-grade, consistent with experience effects and reference dependence. Cyclone exposure dampened treatment responses, suggesting capital constraints, while infrastructure preparedness (e.g., nursing facilities) enhanced uptake. These findings underscore that in high-risk agricultural systems, price incentives alone may not drive adoption unless the promoted input is perceived as effective. Successful promotion strategies must integrate quality assurance with attention to farmer experience, behavioral biases, and vulnerability to shocks.

2023 Social Accounting Matrix for Bangladesh: A Nexus Project SAM

The 2023 Bangladesh Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) follows IFPRI's Standard Nexus SAM approach, by focusing on consistency, comparability, and transparency of data. The Nexus SAMs available on IFPRI's website separates domestic production into 42 activities. Factors are disaggregated into labor, agricultural land, and capital, with labor further disaggregated across three education-based categories. The household account is divided into 10 representative household groups: Rural and urban households across per capita consumption quintiles. Nexus SAMs support the improvement of model-based research and policy analysis in developing countries and allow for more robust cross-country comparisons of national economic structures, especially agriculture-food systems.

It's raining babies? Flood exposures and fertility in Bangladesh

An abundant demographic literature examines the impacts of climatic and environmental change on human migration and health. However, somewhat less is known about the effects of environmental changes, especially flood events, on fertility despite plausible reasons to expect such impacts. We address this gap by examining the relationship between exposure to flooding and fertility in Bangladesh, which has experienced several catastrophic flood events in recent decades. We link birth records from the Demographic and Health Survey with satellite-derived measures of flooding from 2001 through 2018 and fit regression models to measure the effects of flood exposures on the probability of live births in subsequent years. To explore pathways, we also construct and analyze panels of women's entry into first marriage and mortality among under-5 children. Flooding has uneven effects on fertility across the target population. We detect statistically and substantively meaningful flood-related increases in childbearing among less-educated and higher parity women but find flood-related fertility declines among childless women and those in urban areas. Results also suggest that flood-related delays in marriage among urban women may explain their reductions in fertility. However, findings otherwise provide little systematic evidence that marriage and child mortality mediate the links between flood exposures and fertility.

Disparities in food security and nutrition across climate-vulnerable regions in Bangladesh

Background
In climate-vulnerable Bangladesh, certain regions are more exposed to climate-related risks. This climate vulnerability in Bangladesh exposes regional disparities, which have been overlooked in the current literature. This research addresses this gap by comparing food security and nutritional indicators in high and low-climate-vulnerable regions.

Methods
The study involved a secondary analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, supplemented by a comprehensive literature review. It examined multiple food security indicators (such as rice production, household dietary diversity score (HDDS), minimum dietary diversity of infant and young child feeding (MDD-IYCF), and zero fruit intake) and nutritional status indicators (stunting, wasting, and underweight in under-five children, and body mass index (BMI) for adults). These indicators were compared over 6–11 years (2010–2022) between two climate-vulnerable regions of Bangladesh: Barishal division, the high climate-vulnerable region, and Dhaka division, the low climate-vulnerable region.

Results
A comparative analysis revealed that rice production declined in Barishal, while it increased in Dhaka. Both parts exhibited increased HDDS and MDD-IYCF, with Dhaka experiencing a better percentage increase. Barishal recorded an increase in the proportion of households with zero fruit intake. The prevalence of malnutrition among under-five children and adults (BMI < 18.5) has decreased over time. However, the rate of improvement in Dhaka was higher than that of Barishal, except for the trend of adult malnutrition prevalence, which improved more rapidly in Barishal. Conclusions The observed food security and nutrition indicators demonstrated a higher rate of improvement (in a positive interpretation) in Dhaka (a less climate-vulnerable region) relative to Barishal (a more climate-vulnerable region). This study highlights the necessity for continuous research, monitoring, and periodic climate surveys to identify emerging climatic challenges.

How social norms influence processes of change related to an economic intervention in Bangladesh

Intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs due to multiple factors at the individual, relational, community and societal levels. Previous research has shown that a cash, food and behaviour change communication programme called the Transfer Modality Research Initiative (TMRI) implemented from 2012 to 2014 in Bangladesh had sustained effects on IPV. We collected qualitative data among former TMRI participants in 2023 that allows exploring how social norms may have played a role in shaping the changes related to IPV along four pathways through which TMRI influenced IPV: 1) economic security, 2) family relationships, 3) women’s empowerment, and 4) social support and community relationships. We conducted nine focus group discussions (FGDs) with 49 women TMRI participants, nine FGDs with 52 husbands of women TMRI participants, 54 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with women TMRI participants, and 10 IDIs with women who did not participate in TMRI. We find: along 1) women’s economic contributions may facilitate weakening of IPV norms, however norms on gender roles and seclusion constrain change; along 2) norms related to family reputation could influence IPV condemnation, however norms on female submission and obedience to in-laws constrain change; along 3) norms on female submission constrain female empowerment but could be weakened if women display knowledge aligning with gender roles; and, along 4) linkages to reduced IPV were less clear, with female seclusion norms constraining change, highlighting the importance of group activities. Our findings draw attention to the potential for economic interventions layered with context-specific norms interventions to achieve longer-term changes in IPV and gender inequalities.

Methodological considerations and cost to measure coverage of multisectoral nutrition interventions: Protocol for the One Nutrition Coverage Survey in Bangladesh

Introduction
Despite global commitments to eliminate malnutrition, over half the world’s population remains affected. Multisectoral nutrition interventions targeting both proximate and distal causes of malnutrition are essential across the lifespan. Yet, current data collection lacks comprehensive nutrition intervention coverage measures, risking inaccuracies in tracking progress. The One Nutrition Coverage Survey (ONCS) aims to test new and refined coverage measurement methods, assess coverage equity and guide integration into large-scale household surveys.

Methods and analysis
The ONCS will be a cross-sectional, population-representative household survey conducted in four districts of Bangladesh (Rangpur, Sylhet, Dhaka and Khulna), selected for their geographic spread and urban–rural balance. A stratified multistage sampling approach will be used to select enumeration areas, and a total of approximately 3280 households randomly selected within each EA will be included in the survey. The survey will interview women of reproductive age (15–49 years), caregivers of children (0–9 years), adolescents (10–19 years) and pregnant women, collecting data on multisectoral nutrition interventions relevant to these groups. It will use both existing and new measures, while also capturing monetary and non-monetary costs for survey design to implementation. Data will be analysed to assess coverage, co-coverage and equity by sociodemographic characteristics, as well as the feasibility, accuracy and costs of the survey approach.

Ethics and dissemination
The study protocol and instruments were reviewed and approved by the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh’s (icddr,b) Ethical Review Board in Bangladesh and the International Food Policy Research Institute’s Institutional Review Board in Washington, DC, USA. Adults provided signed informed consent and adolescents their assent. Findings will be shared through peer-reviewed publications, conferences and presentations in Bangladesh with key stakeholders. This study will yield new tools, methods and evidence for measuring multisectoral nutrition intervention coverage, applicable to other low-income and middle-income countries. Learnings from ONCS will enhance data collection aligned with national strategies, helping governments improve coverage assessments, inform decisions and strengthen programme monitoring.

Gender, nutrition-sensitive agricultural interventions, and resilience: Evidence from rural Bangladesh

We assess whether a gender- and nutrition-sensitive agricultural interventions, fielded in rural Bangladesh, aimed at improving food production diversity enhanced resilience and whether impacts persisted post-intervention. Four years post-program, treatment arms that included both agriculture and nutrition training reduced the likelihood that households undertook more severe forms of coping strategies during the Covid-19 pandemic. There were persistent improvements in household consumption and diet quality; impacts were largest for poor but not the poorest households in our sample. Underlying these results were the long-term beneficial impacts on women’s agricultural knowledge, agency, and increased engagement in agricultural activities.

Food price stabilization: Theory and lessons from experience

Climate-smart agriculture in Bangladesh: Adoption, policy barriers and way forward

This discussion brief is part of the knowledge management and capacity building component of the Consortium for Scaling-up Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Asia (C-SUCSeS) project. C-SUCSeS is a joint initiative between the SAARC1 Agriculture Centre (SAC), International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). It aims to promote bottomup applied research on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies through active participation of smallholder farmers based on the participatory research experiences in the region.

Can multinational buyers help curb river pollution by Bangladesh’s garment industry?

As the fashion industry faces mounting scrutiny over its environmental footprint, evidence from Bangladesh shows that exporting to multinational brands is linked with measurable improvements in river water quality. This highlights how responsible sourcing practices and appropriate incentives, driven by consumer demand for sustainable brands, can enhance environmental compliance in developing countries.

Agricultural mechanization policy in Bangladesh: An assessment of the phase III support program and recommendations for reform

This report assesses Bangladesh's Phase III agricultural mechanization support program (2020–2024), examining the distribution, impacts, and governance of subsidies for agricultural machines—particularly combine harvesters (CHs). We analyze program effectiveness and identify critical imple mentation gaps using mixed-methods research combining administrative data analysis; a representative survey of 979 Machinery Service Providers (MSPs), including 400 CH MSPs sampled across 10 districts representing Bangladesh’s major agroecological zones and mechanization intensity; panel data from over 2,000 nationally representative Boro rice–producing households; and 128 qualitative interviews to analyze program effectiveness and pinpoint critical implementation gaps.

South Asia Nutrition Knowledge Initiative: Abstract digest August 2025

The sixth edition of the Abstract Digest underscores a complex and evolving nutrition landscape in South Asia, characterized by the persisting "triple burden" of malnutrition – undernutrition, overweight and obesity, and anemia. The 2025 report of the Lancet Countdown to 2030 provides an overarching global and regional assessment of reproductive, maternal, child, and adolescent health and nutrition, with an emphasis on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), especially in South Asia.

Broadly, the featured articles examine the importance of preconception care and interventions to improve maternal and child health, alongside analyses of antenatal care service utilization and its associated factors. Studies also examine the prevalence and determinants of various forms of malnutrition, and assess the effectiveness and cost-benefit of nutrition programs and interventions, focusing on India and Bangladesh. A few articles focus on adolescent nutrition, highlighting the rising rates of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in countries like Nepal and Bangladesh, as well as opportunities to improve maternal, infant, young child, and adolescent nutrition service delivery in Bangladesh, India, and beyond. Several articles delve into the influence of food environments on dietary quality and health in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal, as well as the broader context of health systems and policy implementation in LMICs. Many of the studies in this edition call for future research on rigorous evaluations of scalable interventions in real-world settings.

Please scroll down to explore the abstracts of these studies, and information on relevant events. If you were forwarded this Abstract Digest, we invite you to subscribe!

Happy reading!

Vulnerability to adverse climate change: Evidence from rural Bangladesh

Applying an integrated engagement model to support country-led food systems transformation: Insights from the SHiFT Initiative's approach in Viet Nam, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh

From 2022-2024, the CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation (SHiFT) combined high-quality nutritional and social science research with development and policy partnerships to generate innovative food systems solutions that contributed to sustainable healthy diets. Through a country-led approach, SHiFT supported the design and implementation of national food systems transformation activities in Viet Nam, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh, aiming to achieve sustainable healthy diets while also working toward improved livelihoods, gender equity, and social inclusion. Following the 2021 United Nations Food Systems Summit (UNFSS), countries were encouraged to define pathways for transforming their food systems to align with the 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).2 Many countries have since developed national action plans to operationalize these pathways, requiring coordinated multisectoral efforts. SHiFT contributed to this process by generating evidence and supporting national stakeholders in developing context-specific food systems solutions. This brief introduces SHiFT’s country engagement strategy and explains how SHiFT supported collaborative pathways and processes in each target country during its initial phase. Consumers and Food Environments, Area of Work 1 in the new CGIAR Science Program on Better Diets and Nutrition, will build upon the SHiFT approach starting in 2025 through 2030.

Does rural non-farm employment relieve or exacerbate the agricultural diversification-farm efficiency tradeoff: The case of aquaculture in Bangladesh

This paper studies how rural non-farm employment conditions the relationship between agricultural diversification and fish production efficiency. Competition for scarce productive resources typically implies a compromise between agricultural diversification and efficiency. Yet, the potential for non-farm income to resolve this tradeoff remains understudied. Cash from non-farm sources may support productivity-enhancing input purchase, thereby improving efficiency. On the other hand, by diversifying both on- and off-farm, household resources such as labor may be stretched too thin, lowering fish production efficiency. Using micro-level data on fish farming households in Southern Bangladesh, we show that at higher levels of the non-farm income share, diversification into crops results in significant allocative inefficiencies. Results are inconclusive for the technical efficiency measure.

CGIAR Initiative on One Health

The renewable rise: Shaping Bangladesh's energy future in the context of COP30

Globally, climate change disrupts energy systems through extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and shifting resource availability. Increasing temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, and frequent cyclones pose a threat to energy infrastructure in Bangladesh, a low-lying and climate-vulnerable region. These climatic hazards also influence energy consumption patterns and degrade the efficiency of generation systems. As Bangladesh elevates its energy sector to meet development goals, incorporating climate resilience is critical to ensuring long-term sustainability and security. This policy brief outlines the current challenges, reviews government actions, proposes alternative solutions, and assesses their potential economic impacts in the context of Bangladesh’s preparation for the 30th COP in November 2025 and the development of the third Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC).

Beyond fossil fuels: Charting a sustainable transport pathway for Bangladesh at COP30

The transport sector of Bangladesh, while on one hand is an important driver of economic growth, is also one of the major contributors to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. This policy brief outlines the current challenges, reviews government actions, proposes alternative solutions, and assesses their potential economic impacts in the context of Bangladesh’s preparation for the 30th COP and the development of the third Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). The analysis highlights ongoing efforts to align climate resilience with the national policies of the transport sector. However, key challenges remain, including continued reliance on fossil fuels, high costs associated with Electric Vehicle adoption, and infrastructural barriers. To address these issues, we recommend enhanced policy coordination across sectors, expansion of financial incentives for transitioning to greener transport options, embedding climate risk assessments into ongoing and future transport infrastructures, and investment in research on the feasibility and challenges of overall green energy transition in the transport sector.

Adapting to survive: Climate change and Bangladesh's agricultural imperative in the context of COP30

The agriculture sector is a major contributor to income and employment generation in Bangladesh. As a climate-sensitive sector, climate change has a direct and indirect impact on food security by lowering agricultural productivity and reducing the nutritional quality of food. The sector also contributes to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. In the base year 2012, the AFOLU (agriculture, forestry, and other land use) sector accounted for 27.35% of total GHG emissions. To combat the challenges related to climate change and food security in Bangladesh, the government has taken various actions. This policy brief outlines the current challenges, reviews government actions, proposes alternative solutions, and assesses their potential economic impacts in the context of Bangladesh’s preparation for the 30th COP in November 2025 and the development of the third Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC).

What adults in rural South Asia eat and when they eat it: Evidence from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal

Does trade with multinationals induce greener production? Evidence from the Bangladesh fashion industry

This brief explores how responsible sourcing by multinational fashion brands improves water quality in Bangladesh’s apparel industry. Using firm-level and environmental data, the study shows that exporters working with global brands adopt greener practices, highlighting the potential of trade to drive sustainable production in developing countries.

This study examines whether trade with multinational fashion brands encourages greener production among suppliers in Bangladesh using a novel dataset that combines firm-level transactional data with river water quality indicators.

The study finds that firms exporting to global fashion brands (for example, H&M, Zara, Uniqlo, and Banana Republic) are more likely to adopt environmentally sustainable practices.

An increase in the share of suppliers exporting to multinational brands leads to measurable improvements in river water quality. The improvement in water quality persists for at least four years after firms begin exporting to multinational brands.

The negative impact of higher export activity is mitigated when exporters are primarily supplying to multinational brands with stricter environmental requirements.

Policy recommendations include strengthening environmental regulation enforcement, introducing a pollution monitoring and warning system, harmonising environmental certification requirements, encouraging multinationals to support green production, and exerting global pressure on non-brand buyers to adhere to higher environmental standards.

Patterns of livelihood diversification in farming systems of the Eastern Gangetic Plains

CONTEXT
The Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) is a region characterized by smallholder-dominated farming systems, facing rapid socio-economic and environmental changes. Livelihood diversification away from traditional agriculture is increasingly seen as a strategy to enhance resilience, income stability, and food security among these smallholders. However, comprehensive understanding of diversification patterns and their drivers within the EGP remains limited.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to elucidate the patterns of livelihood diversification in farming systems across the EGP, and identify the key factors driving diversification.
METHODS
Utilizing data from the Rupantar project involving a baseline survey of 1400 households across India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and a subsequent analysis employing the Simpson's Index of Diversity (SID) to quantify diversification levels. Multivariate regression models were used to explore the determinants of diversification, while disaggregating the analysis by country and diversification components (crop plot, crop non-plot, and non-crop non-plot).
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
The study revealed moderate levels of diversification across the EGP, with significant geographical and contextual variability. Key drivers of diversification included access to resources, gender, education, market access, and institutional support, with notable differences across countries and diversification types. Specifically, non-ownership of irrigation pumps, female household headship, and engagement in off-farm and non-farm activities emerged as significant predictors of higher diversification levels.
SIGNIFICANCE
This study contributes to a nuanced understanding of livelihood diversification in the EGP, highlighting the complexity of diversification patterns and the multifaceted nature of its determinants and impacts. By identifying specific drivers of diversification, the findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers aiming to support rural livelihoods in the region. Emphasizing the role of gender, resource access, and institutional support, the study underscores the importance of tailored interventions to enhance the resilience and sustainability of smallholder farming systems in the face of changing environmental and socio-economic conditions.

Clustering shrimp farms in Bangladesh: A novel effort with mixed outcomes

Organizing smallholder farmers in clusters has been widely promoted as a way to boost agricultural productivity, streamline delivery of extension services, and improve access to markets. In Bangladesh, where shrimp is an important export crop produced largely by smallholders, government and industry view clustering as key to preventing Bangladesh being left behind in an increasingly competitive global market. Bangladesh’s shrimp exports are highly dependent on the hotel, restaurant, and catering (HoReCa) sector in Europe—a small and relatively low value market segment. Gaining access to the much larger and potentially more lucrative retail market segment in Europe and North America requires high quality, traceable, and - increasingly - certified, shrimp, posing a challenging for Bangladesh.

How aid cuts could make vulnerable communities even less resilient to climate change

As global temperatures rise and climate-related disasters become more frequent, the need to adapt is rapidly increasing. That need for adaptation – from adjusting farming practices to diversifying livelihoods and strengthening infrastructure – is most acute in vulnerable low- and middle-income countries such as Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Haiti and Vietnam.

Improving practices at Bangladesh’s brick kilns: A win-win for business and the environment

Reducing emissions and air pollution from informal brick kilns: Evidence from Bangladesh

We present results from a randomized controlled trial in Bangladesh that introduced operational practices to improve energy efficiency and reduce emissions in 276 “zigzag” brick kilns. Of all intervention kilns, 65% adopted the improved practices. Treatment assignment reduced energy use by 10.5% ( P -value <0.001) and decreased CO 2 and PM 2.5 emissions by 171 and 0.45 metric tons, respectively, per kiln per year. Valuing the CO 2 reductions using a social cost of carbon of 185 USD per metric ton, we find that the social benefits outweigh costs by a factor of 65 to 1. The intervention, which required no new capital investment, also decreased fuel costs and increased brick quality. Our results demonstrate the potential for privately profitable, as well as publicly beneficial, improvements to address environmental problems in informal industries.

Food transfers, cash transfers, behavior change communication and child nutrition: Evidence from Bangladesh

This paper reports the results of two 2-year randomized control trials in two poor rural areas of Bangladesh. Treatment arms included monthly cash transfers, monthly food rations of equivalent value to the cash transfers, and mixed monthly cash and food transfers, and treatment arms—one with food and one with cash—that combined transfers with nutrition-behavior communication change (BCC). This design enables a comparison of transfer modalities within the same experiment. Intent-to-treat estimators show that cash transfers and nutrition BCC had a large impact on nutritional status, a 0.25 standard deviation increase in height-for-age z-scores and a 7.8 percentage point decrease in stunting prevalence. No other treatment arm affected anthropometric outcomes. Mechanisms underlying these impacts are explored. Improved diets—particularly increased intake of animal source foods in the cash plus BCC arm—are consistent with the improvements observed in this paper.

Developing a food safety consumer experience scale: Qualitative insights from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Vietnam

Objectives: Unsafe food contributes to 600 million cases of foodborne illness and 420,000 deaths annually. Existing methods used to evaluate food safety risks overlook consumers’ perspectives coming from their everyday experiences that influence their food choices. Our objective was to develop a cross-culturally appropriate and user-friendly scale to assess consumers’ experiences related to food safety in low- and middle-income countries. This study identified the constructs that constitute the experiences of food safety that the scale should reflect.

Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with urban households in Bangladesh (n=51), Ethiopia (n=50), and Vietnam (n=41). Eligible households had children aged 2–5 years and members serving as primary food purchasers, preparers, and caregivers. Interviews explored attitudes, perceptions, and lived experiences related to food safety. Data were analyzed using a constant comparative method.

Results: Respondents expressed awareness of biological and chemical contaminants in foods. Concerns about chemical additives and food adulteration were common, fueled by beliefs that these hazards cause chronic illnesses. Personal and familial experiences with foodborne illness reinforced caution when buying foods. Religious and cultural beliefs shaped how respondents explained and responded to food safety concerns, with some attributing illness symptoms to spiritual causes. Trust in food vendors was rooted in reputation, visible cleanliness, and willingness to rectify issues (e.g., exchange items). Respondents differentiated their extent of scrutinizing safety based on food type: staples such as rice and pulses were assessed more by vendor credibility, whereas perishables such as fish and meat underwent direct, detailed inspections. Low transparency in food sourcing and how vendors prepared foods were persistent concerns.

Conclusions: Trust, perceived transparency, risk perceptions, and past incidents shaped consumers’ mental representations and behaviors related to food safety. Interviews underscored the centrality of context and sensory-based quality indicators, suggesting that scenario-based assessments are more appropriate than generic risk-reduction items.

The unmet financial needs of intermediary firms within agri-food value chains in Uganda and Bangladesh

Intermediary firms within agri-food value chains — operating between the farmgate and retailers — typically account for at least as much, if not more, value added as the primary agricultural production sector of the economy, but little is known about how these small and largely informal firms conduct their business. Drawing on a set of innovative surveys implemented amid the arabica coffee and soybean value chains in Uganda and the rice and potato value chains in Bangladesh, we describe the financial activities of these intermediary firms. We document four sets of results. First, across all intermediary actors in our data the overwhelming majority of transactions are cash-based. Second, although many intermediary actors are un-banked, access to financial accounts varies considerably by value chain segment, commodity, and country. Third, while most intermediary actors report using mobile money for personal purposes, especially in Uganda, very few use mobile money to facilitate business transactions. Fourth, although intermediary actors frequently report exposure to risk, very few effectively manage this risk. We conclude by discussing how intermediary agri-food value chain actors represent an underappreciated population for the promotion of new technologies to improve outcomes among both intermediary actors themselves and smallholder farmers.

Evolution of intimate partner violence impacts from cash transfers, food transfers, and behaviour change communication: Mixed-method experimental evidence from a nine-year post-programme follow-up in Bangladesh

Cash or food transfers can reduce intimate partner violence (IPV), but knowledge gaps remain on how impacts evolve over time, and the role of complementary ‘plus’ activities and contextual factors. We conducted a mixed-method analysis of how the Transfer Modality Research Initiative in Bangladesh affected IPV over time. The programme was implemented from 2012 to 2014, following a randomised controlled trial (RCT) design, across Northern and Southern Bangladesh. Intervention arms included monthly cash or food transfers, with or without complementary nutrition behaviour change communication (BCC). We estimate post-programme impacts on IPV using quantitative data collected in 2014–2015, 2018, and 2022, and combine this with qualitative data collected in 2023 to explore how and why IPV impacts evolved over time and the role of contextual factors. In the North, combining cash with BCC led to sustained IPV reductions in each post-programme round, while cash alone reduced IPV in 2022 but not the previous two rounds; food transfers showed no post-programme impacts. In the South, combining food with BCC led to post-programme IPV reductions in 2014–2015; no intervention sustained IPV reductions thereafter. Sustained IPV reductions are primarily driven by improved household economic security and emotional well-being. Other pathways – family relationships (including in-laws’ roles), women's empowerment, and social and community support – contributed to changing couples' relationships during the programme but became less salient after the programme ended. Contextual factors, including demographic changes, climate-related changes, external projects and norms condoning IPV appear to influence the sustainability of impacts. Results suggest that ‘plus’ programming was key to sustaining IPV impacts soon after the interventions, but less so by nine years post-programme, as economic security increasingly drove impacts. More mixed method research is needed from the outset to unpack if and how pathways to IPV reduction can be sustained in different contexts over time.

Sustainable poverty reduction through social assistance: Modality, context, and complementary programming in Bangladesh

Social assistance programs can increase consumption and reduce poverty, but less is known about whether these impacts are sustained after programs end or how design and context influence sustainability. Using data collected in two regions of Bangladesh four years after a randomized intervention ended, we find that combining cash transfers with complementary programming led to sustained increases in consumption and reductions in poverty. Combining food transfers with complementary programming showed similar patterns to a lesser extent. Cash alone had context-specific sustained effects; food alone had no sustained impacts. Results suggest that context, modality, and complementary programming matter for sustained impacts. (JEL D12, E21, I32, I38, O15)

Dataset on the patterns of livelihood diversification in farming systems of the Eastern Gangetic Plains of South Asia

The Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) region, characterized by smallholder-dominated farming, is experiencing rapid socio-economic and environmental changes. To enhance resilience, income stability, and food security, smallholders are increasingly diversifying their livelihoods away from traditional agriculture. However, the patterns and drivers of this diversification remain poorly understood. This study, utilizing data from the Rupantar project, aims to elucidate these patterns, identify key drivers, and assess the impacts on productivity, profitability, nutrition, and inclusion. A mixed-methods approach was employed, including a baseline survey of 1,400 households across India, Nepal, and Bangladesh and analysis using the Simpson's Index of Diversity (SID). Fractional regression models revealed moderate diversification levels across the EGP with significant geographical and contextual variability. Key drivers included access to resources, gender, education, market access, and institutional support, with differences observed across countries and diversification types. Factors such as non-ownership of irrigation pumps, female household headship, and engagement in off-farm activities were significant predictors of higher diversification. The study found that diversification can enhance income security, nutritional outcomes, and environmental sustainability, although impacts vary by diversification type.

Improving multi-sectoral nutrition coverage measurement: The One Nutrition Coverage Survey in Bangladesh

Over the last two decades many low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) have developed multi-sectoral nutrition policies to address high rates of malnutrition across their populations. As of 2022, 45 out of 66 Scaling Up for Nutrition (SUN) countries have a national multi-sectoral nutrition policy, the remaining countries are working towards such policies. However, few countries have sufficient data on the reach or coverage of nutrition interventions across sectors to effectively monitor and support multisector policy implementation.

Weather shocks and rice (Oryza sativa) yield response to fertilizer: Representative field-level evidence from Bangladesh

The fertilizer response of yield has been one of the major indicators of agricultural productivity in both developed and developing countries. Filling the evidence gap remains vital regarding fertilizer response in South Asia, given the emergence of intensifying weather shocks. Nationally representative evidence at field levels reflecting farmers’ actual production environments is particularly scarce. We fill this knowledge gap by using three rounds of nationally representative panel data of farm households with plot‐level rice (Oryza sativa) production information and assessing how the shapes of response functions are affected by shocks in temperatures, droughts, and rainfall, using common yield response functions including both quadratic function and stochastic linear response plateau (LRP). Notably, in the stochastic LRP model, we find that one standard deviation (1SD) increases in the percentiles of growing degree days (GDD) and high nighttime temperature (HNT) relative to their historical distributions reduce sub‐plateau yield response by 50% or more and yield plateau by up to 0.4 t/ha in Boro and Aman irrigated system. In the Aman rainfed system, 1SD increases in GDD and HNT percentiles reduce sub‐plateau linear responses by roughly 30%. Similarly, 1SD increases in drought severity and decreases in rainfall shift down the overall linear response function by 0.1–0.2 t/ha and yield plateau by about 0.1 t/ha. Furthermore, results for stochastic LRP are also consistent for both maximum likelihood estimation of Maddala–Nelson Switching Regression, as well as Bayesian regression models in which researchers’ prior beliefs are updated by posterior information obtained from the data based on the Bayes’ rules.

Enhanced quality of nutrition services during antenatal care through interventions to improve maternal nutrition in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India

Background
Quality antenatal care (ANC) services are critical for maternal health and nutrition. Information on the quality of nutrition interventions during ANC is scarce in low- and middle-income countries. We examined the effects of intensified maternal nutrition interventions during ANC on service readiness, provision of care, and experience of care and assessed the inter-relationships between the dimensions of quality.

Methods
We used data from impact evaluations of maternal nutrition interventions in Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and India. We calculated the quality of nutrition services during ANC using information from health facility assessments, health care provider interviews, ANC observations, and client exit interviews. We used structural equation models to examine relationships between the dimensions of quality.

Results
Health facilities in all four countries had a high service readiness component in terms of basic amenities, equipment and supplies, medicines and commodities, and guidelines (mean (x̄) = 8–10 in Bangladesh and Burkina Faso, x̄ = 7–9 in Ethiopia, and x̄ = 6–8 in India). Scores for provision of care were low across the countries but higher in intervention compared to control areas in Bangladesh (5.2 vs. 2.9) and Burkina Faso (5.6 vs. 4.8), but not significantly different in Ethiopia (range = 4.7–5.0) and India (range = 2.6–3.5). For experience of care, client satisfaction scores were high and similar between intervention and control areas in all countries (range = 8.3–9.7), but client experience scores were lower with statistically significant differences observed only in Bangladesh (x̄ = 8.2 in intervention vs. x̄ = 7.1 in control areas). The interventions had significant direct effects on service readiness in Bangladesh (β = 0.07), Burkina Faso (β = 1.20), and Ethiopia (β = 1.0), on the provision of care in Bangladesh (β = 2.27), Burkina Faso (β = 1.27), and India (β = 0.96), and experience of care in Bangladesh (β = 0.21).

Conclusions
In this study, we provided evidence on various dimensions of service quality that may be improved by interventions to strengthen nutrition services during ANC in diverse low- and middle-income countries.

Does trade with multinationals induce greener production? Evidence from the Bangladesh fashion industry

This working paper examines the impact of trading with global fashion brands on the environmental performance of suppliers in Bangladesh. The study finds that an increase in the number of exporters to brand multinationals improves the river water quality surrounding these exporters, highlighting the crucial role multinational buyers play in mitigating industrial pollution.

JEL Classification: F18, F64, O13, Q56

Trends and inequities in adequacy of micronutrient intakes in rural Bangladesh

Background
Micronutrient deficiencies pose a significant public health challenge, yet limited evidence exists on micronutrient intakes over time in Bangladesh.
Objective
We assessed trends and adequacies in micronutrient intakes and examined the changes in inequities by age group, sex, and expenditure quintile.
Methods
We used panel data from the 2011 and 2018 Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (n =21,475 and 21,589 household members aged ≥2y, respectively). Food consumption data were collected using a household dietary recall. Changes in micronutrient intakes were assessed using non-parametric Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon rank sum test. Inequities in outcomes were examined using the Slope Index of Inequality and Concentration Index.
Results
Micronutrient intakes remained suboptimal across 2011 and 2018, with low adequacy (<0.50) for all nutrients except niacin. While vitamin A intake increased across various demographics, trends for other micronutrient intakes differed by age. Intakes improved for 10 micronutrients among children aged 2-<5y, but increased for only half of examined micronutrients among children aged 5-9y. For adolescents and adults, most micronutrient intakes slightly declined, with greater inadequacies observed among females versus males. Pregnant women experienced sharper declines in adequacy of micronutrient intakes than lactating women. The mean probability of adequacy (MPA) was low (around one-third) for all age groups with lower MPA among poorer compared to richer households across age, sex and survey years. Inequity gaps in MPA mostly declined, except for females ≥50y and pregnant women. Conclusions Micronutrient intakes and adequacies remain suboptimal and have decreased marginally over time for many nutrients and MPA across most age groups. Inequities in micronutrient intakes persist by age, sex, and income levels, disproportionately affecting the poor, adults, and women. Our study calls for evidence-based policies and programs that incorporate a range of proven approaches and tailored solutions to effectively tackle persisting inequities and ensure access to healthy diets for all.

Trends and associated factors of animal source foods consumption among children aged 6–23 months in Bangladesh: Evidence from four consecutive national surveys

Animal source foods (ASF) are nutrient-dense and essential for the growth and development of children. The Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2022 reported that approximately two-thirds of children aged 6–23 months consumed eggs/flesh foods. However, overall consumption patterns, trends, and factors influencing ASF intake among children in Bangladesh were not well-documented. Therefore, the study aimed to assess the trends and associated factors of ASF consumption among children aged 6–23 months in Bangladesh. A total of 9401 children were extracted from four consecutive BDHS (2011, 2014, 2017/18, and 2022). The Cochran-Armitage test was conducted to assess the trends in ASF consumption, while a two-stage multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression was performed to identify the associated factors. The consumption of ASF significantly increased to 79.1% in 2017/18 from 67% in 2011 but decreased to 73.3% in 2022. ASF consumption was found to be higher among children whose mothers were educated (AOR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.30–1.98), employed in either agricultural (AOR = 1.27, 95% CI = 1.04–1.54) or non-agricultural (AOR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.07–1.72) activities, pregnant (AOR = 2.54, 95% CI = 1.66–3.87), had received ANC 1–3 times (AOR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.20–1.72) or ≥4 times (AOR = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.29–1.95), and was exposed to media (AOR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.04–1.39). Furthermore, consumption increased with increasing the age of children, and the wealth of their families. However, children who experienced illness were less likely to consume ASF (AOR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.68–0.86). The recent declines in ASF consumption emphasize the need for targeted interventions to increase ASF consumption among children in Bangladesh.

Co-coverage of social protection programs and maternal and child nutrition interventions in Bangladesh, India and Nepal

Social protection programs (SPPs) are common in South Asia, a global malnutrition hotspot. Provision of SPP benefits as well as essential health/nutrition interventions to mothers and children are goals for optimal health and development outcomes, but the degree of co-coverage of SPPs and health/nutrition interventions among beneficiary households is poorly described. Using six population-based surveys from 2012 to 2019 in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (n=253,703 women with children under five years of age), we examined data availability for SPPs (food and cash transfers) and health/nutrition interventions, and estimated their coverage and co-coverage during a woman’s last pregnancy (interventions: take-home food rations plus at least four antenatal care visits, receipt of at least 100 iron-folic acid tablets, deworming, and tetanus injections), after delivery (cash benefit plus the interventions above), and in children (take-home ration for the child plus vitamin A supplementation, deworming, iron syrup, growth monitoring, and nutrition counseling). In India, 52% and 51% of women and children, respectively, received food transfers, but only 3% and 8% received food plus all health/nutrition interventions. In India and Nepal, respectively, cash after delivery was received by 41% and 86% of women, but only 2% and 21% received cash after delivery plus all health/nutrition interventions. There was insufficient data to estimate coverage of both SPPs and health/nutrition interventions in Bangladesh. Our findings highlight the need for data on both SPP and health/nutrition intervention coverage in household surveys. There are missed opportunities to reach women and children with interventions across multiple sectors.

Intrahousehold dynamics in South Asia: Understanding the relationships between women's empowerment, task sharing, decision making, and diets among women

Despite the growing evidence on the role of women in agriculture and nutrition, interlinkages between empowerment among women, gendered task allocation, and nutrition are rarely studied together. Using data from the Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA), a household survey that used a plate-to-farm assessment approach in three countries (Bangladesh, India and Nepal), the paper investigates the associations between empowerment of women, gendered task allocation, decision-making among women, and diets among women. Our findings reveal complex and context-specific differences in associations between task allocation, decision-making and empowerment among. While agency in decision-making among women is positively associated with empowerment in all three country contexts, associations between gendered task allocation and empowerment vary. The share of tasks performed by females, particularly in agriculture and food preparation) is positively associated with empowerment among women, but the proportion of tasks shared equally between males and females does not necessarily empower women. Gendered task allocation and empowerment among women are not significantly associated with diets of women in the three countries, owing to the greater importance of broader socio-economic and context-specific factors such as wealth, education, and regional factors in explaining the variance in dietary outcomes. These findings highlight the need to take a holistic approach that addresses gender norms and household resource constraints to improving empowerment of women, while also addressing local accessibility/availability of nutritious foods to enhance the quality of diets of women.

What adults in rural South Asia eat and when they eat it: Evidence from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal

Background Poor diets pose a threat to all forms of malnutrition and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Data on dietary patterns are scarce in South Asia.

Objectives We sought to describe overall diet quality, intake of foods and food groups, and eating occasions among adults in rural South Asia.

Methods Data were from five districts across Bangladesh (n=2,802 individuals), India (n=1,672), and Nepal (n=1,451). The Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) application was used to measure intake of foods on the previous day, with each food tagged to an eating occasion. Diet quality and the risk of diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) were described using GDQS total (0–49), GDQS positive (0–32) and GDQS negative (0–17) metrics for overall, healthy, and unhealthy food intake respectively.

Results Diet quality was low, with similar scores across countries for GDQS total (17-19 depending on country), GDQS positive (7–8) and GDQS negative (10–12), indicating low intake of healthy foods as the main contributor to poor diets. Over 90% of adults had levels of GQDS scores associated with moderate/high risk for diet-related NCDs, with the proportion at high risk in Bangladesh being 2-3x higher than other countries. Across sites, intake of refined grains (white rice), sweets (sugar, biscuits), and white tubers (potatoes) was common. One-third of adults did not eat breakfast in Nepal, and snacking was twice as common in males (63%) versus females (33%) in Bangladesh.

Conclusions These findings highlight the need to improve diets in rural South Asia and may help inform interventions targeting food intake patterns.

How to do note: Designing GTAs in the context of women’s land and resource rights

Access to and control over land and resources are vital for women’s empowerment, serving not only as critical productive assets but also as determinants of social status and political power. However, rural women face numerous barriers in securing land rights, including restricted access to resources and services like finance, healthcare, education, market information, agricultural inputs, and technology. Gender transformative approaches (GTAs) aim to challenge and change the underlying social norms, power dynamics, and systemic barriers perpetuating inequality. This How To Do Note (HTDN) describes a process for developing GTAs that can help redress inequalities in women’s land and resource rights. It draws on lessons from an initiative in which GTAs were designed, tested, and adapted across six IFAD projects in countries where addressing gender dimensions was critical for project success. The HTDN aims to facilitate wider adoption and scaling of GTAs to strengthen women’s land and resource rights.

Disruptions and adaptations of an urban nutrition intervention delivering essential services for women and children during a major health system crisis in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Systematic crises may disrupt well-designed nutrition interventions. Continuing services requires understanding the intervention paths that have been disrupted and adapting as crises permit. Alive & Thrive developed an intervention to integrate nutrition services into urban antenatal care services in Dhaka, which started at the onset of COVID-19 and encountered extraordinary disruption of services. We investigated the disruptions and adaptations that occurred to continue the delivery of services for women and children and elucidated how the intervention team made those adaptations. We examined the intervention components planned and those implemented annotating the disruptions and adaptations. Subsequently, we detailed the intervention paths (capacity building, supportive supervision, demand generation, counselling services, and reporting, data management and performance review). We sorted out processes at the system, organizational, service delivery and individual levels on how the intervention team made the adaptations. Disruptions included decreased client load and demand for services, attrition of providers and intervention staff, key intervention activities becoming unfeasible and clients and providers facing challenges affecting utilization and provision of services. Adaptations included incorporating new guidance for the continuity of services, managing workforce turnover and incorporating remote modalities for all intervention components. The intervention adapted to continue by incorporating hybrid modalities including both original activities that were feasible and adapted activities. Amidst health system crises, the adapted intervention was successfully delivered. This knowledge of how to identify disruptions and adapt interventions during major crises is critical as Bangladesh and other countries face new threats (conflict, climate, economic downturns, inequities and epidemics).

Prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes in South Asian countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction
South Asia is observing an epidemiological transition from communicable to non-communicable diseases where diabetes is an important marker. In this study, we estimate the overall prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes in South Asian countries.

Method
A systematic literature review and meta-analysis is performed to estimate the prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, the Maldives, and Afghanistan using studies based on only the nationally representative surveys and published from 2012 until June 2024. The quality of the included articles was assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Both random-effect (Der Simonian-Laird inverse variance) and fixed-effect models were used to perform meta-analyses followed by meta-regression.

Results
We identified 64 studies for diabetes and 14 studies for prediabetes, covering a total of 4,613,487 and 156,407 participants, respectively. Overall, the pooled prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes was 8.56% (95% CI 5.73–11.91; I2 = 99.99%) and 18.99% (95% CI 12.74–26.6; I2 = 99.87%), respectively, with high heterogeneity observed among the studies based on random-effect models. We also found that the prevalence of diabetes identified by clinical methods was higher than the self-reported measures.

Conclusion
The analyses revealed that the prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes in South Asia throughout the study period is significantly elevated. This necessitates the establishment of comprehensive guidelines for South Asians to mitigate the escalating prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes.

What enables agricultural diversification in the Eastern Gangetic Plains? Learning from past success

The increasing significance of agricultural diversification lies in its ability to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of farming systems. This research investigated how diversification occurs and what enables farmers to shift from one system to another. A thematic analysis was employed for 13 case studies from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Our analysis revealed that agricultural diversification was predominantly practiced by marginal and small-scale farmers, and driven by location, growing market demand, and utilization of improved crop varieties. Motivation for diversification included potential increased returns and more consistent income streams. Technical advances (improved crop varieties, seeds, and techniques) and institutional involvement (new market arrangements) have resulted in increased incomes, diverse livelihoods, women's empowerment, and new market opportunities. Through the utilization of case studies, we offer valuable perspectives that can improve the effectiveness of suitable policies and collaborations that can enhance the welfare of farmers and contribute to regional food security.

Guia Orientadora: Diseño de enfoques transformadores en materia de género en el contexto de los derechos de las mujeres a la tierra y los recursos

El acceso y el control a la tierra y los recursos son elementos fundamentales para el empoderamiento de las mujeres, ya que no solo constituyen bienes productivos esenciales, sino que también determinan su estatus social y su poder político. Sin embargo, las mujeres rurales se enfrentan a numerosos obstáculos para garantizar sus derechos a la tierra, entre ellos el acceso limitado a recursos y servicios como el financiamiento, la atención en salud, la educación, la información sobre los mercados, los insumos agrícolas y la tecnología. Con frecuencia, estas dificultades son agravadas por problemas sistémicos más amplios, por épocas de conflicto y por crisis económicas, alimentarias y ambientales. Garantizar los derechos de las mujeres a la tierra y los recursos es esencial para alcanzar los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS). Según la Oficina del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, fortalecer los derechos de las mujeres a la tierra contribuye a mejorar su participación social, sus condiciones de vida, su seguridad alimentaria, su salud, su educación y su defensa frente a la violencia por razones de género. Estos derechos son cruciales para la democracia, la paz, el desarrollo sostenible y la seguridad de las sociedades.
Hacer frente a estos desafíos exige medidas proactivas que permitan transformar las desigualdades de género que se encuentran arraigadas tanto en las políticas formales como en las normas sociales informales. La promoción del acceso, control y uso equitativo de la tierra y los recursos solo puede lograrse abordando y transformando estas instituciones formales e informales, incluidos los regímenes consuetudinarios, para promover la igualdad social y de género.

Note Pratique: Concevoir des approches transformatives sensibles au genre dans le contexte des droits des femmes aux terres et aux ressources

L’accès aux terres et aux ressources, et leur contrôle, sont essentiels à l’autonomisation des femmes, car il s’agit non seulement de moyens de production fondamentaux, mais aussi de déterminants du statut social et du pouvoir politique. Cependant, les femmes des zones rurales sont confrontées à de nombreux obstacles à la garantie de leurs droits fonciers, notamment un accès limité aux ressources et aux services tels que les financements, les soins de santé, l’éducation, les informations sur les marchés, les intrants agricoles et la technologie. Ces obstacles sont souvent aggravés par des problèmes systémiques plus aigus en période de conflits ou de crises économiques, alimentaires ou environnementales.

Garantir les droits des femmes aux terres et aux ressources est fondamental pour atteindre les objectifs de développement durable (ODD). En effet, d’après le Haut-Commissariat des Nations Unies aux Droits de l’Homme, le renforcement des droits fonciers des femmes permet une amélioration de leur statut, conditions de vie, sécurité alimentaire, santé, éducation, et les protègent contre la violence basée sur le genre (VBG). Ces droits sont essentiels pour la démocratie, la paix, le développement durable et la sécurité.

Pour relever ces défis, des mesures proactives sont nécessaires pour transformer les inégalités femmes-hommes profondément ancrées dans les politiques officielles et les normes sociales informelles. La promotion de l’équité dans l’accès, le contrôle et l’utilisation des terres et des ressources ne peut se faire qu’en composant avec ces institutions formelles et informelles et en les transformant, y compris les régimes coutumiers, afin de promouvoir l’équité sociale et de genre.

Capacity assessment to support food systems transformation towards sustainable healthy diets in Bangladesh: Exploring the capabilities of the SHiFT strategic partners

Strengthening the multidisciplinary capabilities necessary to accelerate food systems transformation has garnered increased interest over the past decade. A capabilities assessment was done with the Strategic Partners of the CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation in Bangladesh to understand their abilities to facilitate transformative changes towards sustainable healthy diets. Both Strategic Partners, the Food Planning and Monitoring Unit (FPMU) and the Bangladesh National Nutrition Council (BNNC), have long histories and well-established structures for collaboration and coordination with diverse stakeholders to realize the nutrition-focused (BNNC) and the food-related (FPMU) ambitions of the Government of Bangladesh. They are engaged in food and/or nutrition policy development, governance of the sectors, and monitoring progress at both national and sub-national levels. Using a capability assessment tool tailored to capturing food systems transformation capabilities at organizational level, the capabilities to deliver results and adapt and self-renew were the highest scored for FPMU. BNNC scored more on the capabilities to achieve coherence and to relate to support food systems transformation higher.

However, food systems transformation and sustainable healthy diets emerged as relatively new concepts in both organizations. It was acknowledged that whereas the current mandates of BNNC and FPMU may address issues relevant for sustainable healthy diets, to date this still lacks adequate translation into the current policy development and planning operations and has no intentional prioritization. Both teams underscored the urgency to invest in human resources and institutional capacity strengthening as well as earmarking finances to pursue food systems transformation agendas. Becoming more articulated and explicit about what comprises food systems change, what are sustainable healthy diets and what could be monitored is crucial to support the Strategic Partners to have tangible actions to track. Moving from food system narratives to specific actions will facilitate understanding of what is, or needs to be, monitored.

Do empowerment impacts endure? The medium-term impacts of the Agriculture, Nutrition, and Gender Linkages (ANGeL) Project in Bangladesh

Whether impacts of development interventions are sustainable has attracted much recent interest (examples include Bandiera et al., 2017, Banerjee et al., 2021, Blattman et al., 2020, Carneiro et al., 2021, Grisolia, 2024, and Haushofer and Shapiro, 2018). When interventions involve trained facilitators, for example, it is of interest to know whether effects persist once these facilitators are no longer delivering the message (Ahmed et al, forthcoming). The recognition of women’s empowerment and gender equality as intrinsically important has spawned a growing literature on the impacts of development interventions on women’s empowerment (Quisumbing et al. 2023, Quisumbing et al. 2024) and attitudes towards gender roles (Alderman et al. 2025). Yet, with few exceptions (Alderman et al. 2025) there is little overlap between these two areas of work, in large part because many impact evaluations fail to follow up after the initial evaluation is completed. A synthesis of findings from a portfolio of 11 agricultural development projects in South Asia and Africa suggests that, while projects are able to affect aspects of empowerment such as decisionmaking over resources and control over income, changes in gender norms are more difficult to achieve in the two to three year time span over which impact evaluations are typically conducted(Quisumbing et al. 2024). If women’s empowerment interventions aim ultimately to change gender norms, to detect impacts, they should be measured over a sufficiently long period of time to allow for norm change.

Clustering for global market access in Bangladesh: Endline survey

The "Clustering for Global Market Access Survey" was conducted to assess the impacts of shrimp farm clustering interventions implemented by the Department of Fisheries (DoF), the Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation (BSFF), and a private sector actor. The survey was carried out in two rounds: a baseline in 2023 and an endline in 2024, to evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions. The data presented here are from the endline survey conducted between May 7 and May 31, 2024. Data were collected at the household, cluster, and community levels using a two-stage simple random sampling design and analyzed through a difference-in-differences approach. The household datasets include 1,222 shrimp farms across three districts in southern Bangladesh—Bagerhat, Khulna, and Satkhira. Among these, 622 are cluster farmers, and 600 are non-cluster comparison farmers situated in either the same or adjacent villages to cluster farmers. The data encompass cluster participation, pond characteristics, inputs received from cluster operators, stocking and harvesting, feed and non-feed input use, sales revenue, integrated farming, labor use, credit access, dietary diversity, and food security. The cluster datasets cover 68 shrimp farm clusters, providing insights into cluster composition and training delivered to cluster members. The community datasets provide contextual information on the 136 villages where both cluster and non-cluster farmers reside.

Key stakeholders, platforms, and networks in Bangladesh’s food systems transformation process, 2022–2024

In 2022, the CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation (SHiFT) conducted a stakeholder identification and analysis activity to develop its strategy for stakeholder engagement. As part of SHiFT’s Work Package 5, Catalyzing Food Systems Transformation, this analysis was used to prepare a stakeholder engagement strategy for Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Viet Nam, SHiFT’s three countries of work. The stakeholder identification and mapping, as well as a report on the country’s food system transformation process and issues, constitute a database that enables rapid selection of potential stakeholders for engagement, capacity sharing, and collaboration, among other purposes. The stakeholder identification process is repeated, typically on a quarterly basis, to update the database.
This summary report is based on information first collected in 2022 and updated as of December 2024. Building understanding, engagement, and capacity with diverse food system stakeholders will help to foster collaboration and coordination across varied perspectives, and to drive transformative actions across the food system for positive outcomes on the environment, food security and nutrition, and livelihoods and inclusion.
SHiFT’s approach is to engage with and provide technical support to relevant stakeholders, networks, and platforms whose objectives are aligned with the Initiative’s goals. This approach aims to contribute to local and national food systems transformation for sustainable healthy diets, rather than facilitating the formation of new networks or platforms that would require more time to build engagement and capacity, and might not be sustainable. The Initiative’s efforts are also meant to avoid overlapping with those of the country’s government and other development partners. Instead, SHiFT aims to create synergies through coordinated actions to achieve national food systems transformation and sustainable healthy diets, as well as broader national goals on food systems.

Capacity strengthening as a pathway to drive food systems transformation towards sustainable healthy diets: Reflections from the CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation (SHiFT)

Food systems are failing to provide sustainable, healthy diets that promote health, environmental sustainability, affordability, and cultural acceptability, leaving over three billion people unable to access such diets. Following calls for transformation after the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit and subsequent international dialogues, there is growing recognition of the need for systemic approaches to accelerate food systems transformation (FST). However, many stakeholders remain uncertain about how to implement effective changes, highlighting the need for sustainable development pathways that integrate health, environmental, and inclusion goals. This paper explores what capacities are needed for driving FST, emphasizing the need to strengthen skills and competencies in individuals, organizations, and societies to achieve transformative goals.

Based on the capacity-strengthening experiences of the CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation (SHiFT) in Bangladesh, Ethiopia and Vietnam, the paper examines SHiFT’s capacity-strengthening practice used. Key questions addressed include identifying stakeholders who need transformative capacities, the capacities required for different roles, and strategies to inspire meaningful implementation.

The reflections on capacity-strengthening trajectories for food system actors in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Vietnam underscore the need for tailored, inclusive, and adaptive approaches that address the unique dynamics of each food system. Seven guiding principles emerged: contextualizing within political and economic landscapes; employing adult-based, experiential learning; timing of capacity strengthening interventions; navigating power dynamics; embracing emergence and flexibility; fostering diversity; and stimulating personal agency and leadership. These principles highlight the importance of co-creation, continuous reflection, and iterative adaptation, ensuring capacity-building efforts are relevant, effective, and transformative. By exploring practice-based and case-based insights, this paper contributes to understanding how targeted capacity strengthening can support meaningfully to FST.

Clustering for global market access in Bangladesh: Baseline survey

The "Clustering for Global Market Access Survey" was conducted to assess the impacts of shrimp farm clustering interventions implemented by the Department of Fisheries (DoF), the Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation (BSFF), and a private sector actor. The survey was carried out in two rounds: a baseline in 2023 and an endline in 2024, to evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions. The data presented here are from the baseline survey conducted between November 14 and December 14, 2023.
Data were collected at the household, cluster, and community levels using a two-stage simple random sampling design and analyzed through a difference-in-differences approach. The household datasets include 1,222 shrimp farms across three districts in southern Bangladesh—Bagerhat, Khulna, and Satkhira. Among these, 622 are cluster farmers, and 600 are non-cluster comparison farmers situated in either the same or adjacent villages to cluster farmers. The data encompass cluster participation, pond characteristics, inputs received from cluster operators, stocking and harvesting, feed and non-feed input use, sales revenue, integrated farming, labor use, credit access, dietary diversity, and food security. The cluster datasets cover 68 shrimp farm clusters, providing insights into cluster composition and training delivered to cluster members. The community datasets provide contextual information on the 136 villages where both cluster and non-cluster farmers reside.

Social assistance and adaptation to flooding in Bangladesh

As climate change exacerbates weather shocks, there is growing interest in understanding whether social assistance programs can support coping among poor rural households and whether program effects vary by gender. We assess whether a social assistance program – the Transfer Modality Research Initiative (TMRI) –influenced the effects of prior monsoon flooding on household consumption and adult diets in southern Bangladesh. TMRI provided cash or food transfers, with or without nutrition behavior change communication, from 2012-2014. Within the study sites and years, flooding was substantial but moderate. Our findings suggest that, without TMRI, a one-standard-deviation increase in lagged flooding led to households smoothing consumption by drawing down savings and reducing diet quality among both men and women. In contrast, among TMRI treatment households, lagged flooding did not reduce savings, and both men’s and women’s diet quality improved. Effects on diet quality appeared largely driven by legumes and by fruits and vegetables, and improvements appeared strongest among households receiving both transfers and behavior change communication. Results indicate that social assistance can help households cope with effects of moderate flooding in southern Bangladesh, protecting household savings and improving both men’s and women’s diets.

Bangladesh: Systematic analysis of domestic production and world market shocks

This study explores Bangladesh’s vulnerability to economic shocks and identifies those contributing most to eco-nomic uncertainty. The Bangladesh Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model was employed to simulate a range of potential economic outcomes under various shock scenarios sampled using historical data to capture domestic agricultural yield volatilities and world market price uncertainty for traded goods. Data mining and machine learning methods were applied to quantify the contribution of each shock to the uncertainty of economic outcomes (gross domestic product [GDP], private consumption, poverty, and undernourishment). Our findings suggest that potential variation in Bangladesh’s GDP ranges from +0.8 to -1.0 percent to baseline, with domestic shocks ac-counting for 53.7 percent of uncertainty, and remaining 41.7 percent are explained by the volatility of world market prices and Foreign Exchange (FX) flows. At the same time, private consumption is more uncertain (from +4.0 to -3.5 percent to base), and external factors are the most important risk contributors (70.1 percent is world prices and 2.9 percent is FX flows). Similarly, external factors contribute roughly two-thirds to the potential variation of national poverty and undernourishment rates that fluctuate from -2.4 to +1.8 and –2.2 to +1.9 relative to the baseline rates percentage points respectively. Understanding how potential shocks might impact various segments of the Bang-ladesh economy and population is a critical first step in facilitating a discussion on risk mitigation strategies that include increasing sectoral productivity or diversifying production to reduce reliance on high-risk sectors.

The cluster panacea? An evaluation of three interventions in shrimp value chains in Bangladesh

Clustering farming has often been proposed as an effective way to overcome the significant transactions costs faced by downstream buyers in interacting and negotiating with many small farmers, while making it easier for extension workers and governments to dispense advice, provide upstream services and inputs. In this study, we evaluate the impact of a set of three initiatives in Bangladesh, implemented by a government department, a private sector processing firm and a not-for-profit industrial advocacy body, all involving clustering contiguous shrimp farm ponds to enable group certification necessary for global market access. We implement a canonical difference-in-differences model using two rounds of surveys of a sample of over 1,222 farmers in 2023 and 2024 to assess the impacts on pond management practices, net profits and any unintended impacts on food security and dietary diversity. Our results suggest that the cluster interventions had impressive impacts on adoption of better farm management practices. However, these do not appear to translate into significant gains in net profits, perhaps because these interventions are still relatively new. Further, it appears that cluster farmers pay a penalty on account of a shift to more intensive cultivation, represented by a loss in species diversity and lower incomes from fish and vegetables. We find that there are no significant spillover effects as yet on shrimp farmers in the same village as the clusters. This study reflects critically on the efficacy of clustering that is presumed to enhance access to global markets.

Transforming food systems towards sustainable healthy diets in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Viet Nam: A cross-country stakeholder analysis

The CGIAR Research Initiative on Sustainable Healthy Diets through Food Systems Transformation (SHiFT) recognizes the urgency of early stakeholder engagement to facilitate systemic changes towards sustainable healthy diets. This qualitative exploratory study aimed to provide insights about where stakeholders are active in food systems in Bangladesh, Ethiopia and Viet Nam and their characteristics. The conceptual framework of food systems for diets and nutrition proposed by the High Level Panel of Experts on food security and nutrition was used to map all stakeholders using a network analysis approach, in particular applying the degree centrality measure. This measure shows the food system domains with the largest number of stakeholder connections. The analysis reveals that centralization is spread across various food system domains. In Bangladesh, the areas with the most stakeholder connections are observed in the policy and governance and food environment domains. In Ethiopia, more connections were observed under the food environment, and production system domains and the outcomes related to diets, nutrition and health. In Viet Nam, it is the production system, storage and trade, packaging and processing, and food environment domains with the most stakeholder connections. Overall, platforms are active in policy and governance in all countries, suggesting that engaging with multi-stakeholder platforms is beneficial for SHiFT to advance the national agendas aimed at realizing sustainable healthy diets. Considering connectivity with food system domains, SHiFT can collaborate with all sectors. Moreover, focusing on stakeholders in the food environment, particularly on overseeing foodscapes for people, is essential. However, implementing food systems transformation requires identifying and engaging with other actors as well. However, there is limited representation of stakeholders in processing, transport, and retail, especially in Ethiopia and Bangladesh. International stakeholders emerge prominently from our analysis, suggesting that the food system narrative may still be primarily driven from an international/global perspective, resonating with the United Nations Food Systems Summit dialogues. To realize the ambitions of transitioning towards sustainable healthy diets for all, efforts must extend beyond projects/programs and engage national-level stakeholders.