BT Brinjal Impact Assessment

Impact evaluation of the use of PBR cowpea in Nigeria: Baseline report

Nigeria is the largest consumer and producer of cowpea in Africa. Produced predominantly by smallholder farmers, cowpea is relied on by millions of Nigerians and is one of their main sources of affordable protein. Despite cowpea’s economic relevance (Nwagboso et al. 2024; Phillip et al. 2019), cowpea yields in Nigeria have barely grown over the last 20 years. One of the main abiotic constraints of the crop is the pod-borer insect (Maruca vitrata), which can cause damages of up to 80 percent. Given that conventional breeding has not been successful in addressing this constraint, local and international efforts over the last decades focused on developing a pod-borer-resistant (PBR) cowpea. The culmination of these efforts in Nigeria was the commercial release of the PBR cowpea variety SAMPEA-20T in late 2019. This is a significant milestone, as it was the first transgenic food crop to be approved for cultivation in Nigeria. In its programming under the “Feed the Future Innovative Maize and Cowpea Technologies to Increase Food and Nutrition Security in Africa” activity, implemented by the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) aims for an adoption rate of PBR cowpea in Nigeria of 25 percent by 2025, with yield gains of 20 percent and accompanying reductions in pesticide applications. The International Food Policy Research Institute’s (IFPRI) Program for Biosafety Systems (PBS) is leading a five-year (2021–2026) impact evaluation (IE) project, funded by USAID. The study goal is to generate causal evidence of the use of the PBR cowpea variety and its consequential household and farm impacts and associated value chain effects. In a collaboration with IFPRI’s Nigeria Country Office, PBS is leading and coordinating the overall study while the IFPRI-Nigeria Country Office designs and implements the quantitative and qualitative approaches to the evaluation. IFPRI has worked with technology developers, the AATF and its partners (including private local seed companies), to ensure access to necessary data and cooperation by the evaluation team, while maintaining the team’s independence. To ensure such required independence, the evaluation team has separated the cooperation in implementing the evaluation (including distributing inputs) from the data analysis. The evaluation team will continue to maintain its independence in the methodological approach and the analysis of the results from the implemented randomized controlled trial (RCT), adhering to international standards.

Introduction: Political economy of food system transformation

In August 2022, the Razoni cargo ship, laden with 26,000 tons of grain, navigated a narrow corridor of mined waters outside Ukraine’s port of Odessa. After Russia’s February 2022 invasion of Ukraine exacerbated rising food prices, threatening to plunge millions into hunger, the Razoni was the first ship allowed out of Ukraine under the UN-brokered Black Sea Grain Initiative. The ship’s journey symbolized the world’s dependence on grain from the Black Sea—which supplies 30 percent of the world’s wheat exports and constitutes the source of 12 percent of glob ally traded calories (Glauber and Laborde 2022)—and revealed the vulnerability of countries to dependence on concentrated supply sources (IPES 2022). More over, it underscored that food security and food systems are rarely the byproduct of agriculture policy alone but often intertwined with a broad set of political objectives. The impacts of the Ukraine war reverberated far and wide in 2022, amplifying weaknesses in many countries’ agricultural and food strategies and generating citizen demands for government accountability. From massive food protests in Tunisia that threatened the country’s fragile democracy to the siege of Ecuadorean cities by indigenous groups demanding more affordable food, global unrest reminded the world of the centrality of political economy to food systems at the international, national, and local levels.

The political economy of bundling socio-technical innovations to transform agri-food systems

Agri-food systems transformation requires accelerated innovations to address multiple economic, environmental and health objectives. No innovation serves everyone’s interests. Political opposition to innovations is therefore inevitable. Promotion of agrifood systems innovations requires overcoming such opposition. One strategy is to bundle multiple technological, socio-cultural, policy, and/or institutional innovations to build political coalitions sufficient to champion bundled innovation that might not suffice to advance one-off innovations. Bundling can translate the potential Pareto improvements of individual innovations into actual Pareto improvements more likely to enjoy political support and advance multiple societal objectives simultaneously. This chapter lays out conceptually why bundling is therefore important for the political economy of innovation to transform agri-food systems. It then illustrates the logic using three cases from Asian agricultural development: China’s Science and Technology Backyards program, a comparison of genetic advances in Green Revolution and golden rice, and the contrasting cases of Bt brinjal in India and Bangladesh.

The political economy of food system transformation: Pathways to progress in a polarized world

The current structure of the global food system is increasingly recognized as unsustainable. In addition to the environmental impacts of agricultural production, unequal patterns of food access and availability are contributing to non-communicable diseases in middle- and high-income countries and inadequate caloric intake and dietary diversity among the world’s poorest. While the need to transform food systems is widely accepted, the policy pathways for achieving such a vision often are highly contested, and the enabling conditions for implementation are frequently absent. Moreover, transformation implicitly requires reforms that depart from the status quo, which will generate resistance from those groups that stand to lose the most.

These dynamics are examined in detail in a new book co-edited by Danielle Resnick and Johan Swinnen on The Political Economy of Food System Transformation: Pathways to Progress in a Polarized World, published jointly by IFPRI and Oxford University Press. The book emphasizes that the viability of reforms requires joint consideration of both the complexity of local, national, and global food systems and the increasingly polarized political and institutional contexts in which food policy decision-making occurs. In recent decades, food systems have encompassed a broader range of non-traditional stakeholders, including insurance companies, banks, technology firms, and transnational civil society advocates. Moreover, food systems are no longer just responsible for generating sufficient calories but also are expected to meet a whole host of other objectives, including racial and gender justice, human rights, and the preservation of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge. Yet, not only are food systems changing but so are politics; a wave of populism over the last decade has caused misinformation and ideological bias to compete with rigorous analysis when informing policy recommendations. Polarization at the national level is also reflected in the geopolitical sphere and exacerbated in the wake of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. A perceived crisis of multilateralism makes it difficult to coordinate on cross-national issues, such as climate change and trade, while the rise of multi-stakeholderism in global convenings like the United Nations Food Systems Summit obscures who is ultimately obligated and accountable for food system actions.

Given these complexities, how do we achieve action? To address this question, this book draws on scholarship from a global set of authors whose disciplines span economics, political science, nutrition, ecology, geography, and public policy. Their contributions, which draw on diverse methodologies, analyze binding constraints to reform and showcase factors that have led to progressive change in high-, middle-, and low-income countries. The substantive areas of political economy focus include, among others, repurposing agricultural subsidies, reducing red meat and ultra-processed food consumption, increasing uptake of appropriate biotechnologies, adopting sugar-sweetened beverage taxes, implementing the European Union’s Farm to Fork Strategy, adapting urban food system councils to the Global South, and tracking accountability for global food system commitments. In doing so, the authors highlight the necessity of navigating incentive structures, identifying strategies and opportunities for mobilization, and finding innovative policy designs that broaden coalitions for change.

This page also includes a synopsis:
Resnick, Danielle, ed.; and Swinnen, Johan, ed. 2023. The political economy of food system transformation: Pathways to progress in a polarized world: Synopsis. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896294585

Annual report 2020: CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets

In 2020, PIM findings contributed to seed policies in Nepal and Uganda, Malawi’s extension strategy and approval of insect-resistant cotton, a nationwide program aimed at improving the effectiveness of public service delivery in Uganda, social protection programs in Egypt, and school gardens for better nutrition in Papua New Guinea. At the global level, PIM research was used to shape strategic decisions of organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, GIZ, the Inter-American Development Bank, the UK Government's Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, the World Bank and the World Health Organization. PIM tools were incorporated in universities’ curricula in India and South Africa. Examples of PIM innovations scaled up by partners in 2020 are private sector seed marketing in Ethiopia, picture-based insurance in Ethiopia, India and Kenya, and tools for inclusive governance of natural resources in India and Peru.

The impacts of GM foods: Results from a randomized controlled trial of Bt eggplant in Bangladesh

We implemented a cluster randomized controlled trial to assess the impact of genetically modified eggplant (Bt brinjal) in Bangladesh. Our two primary outcomes were changes in yield and in pesticide costs. Cultivation of Bt brinjal raises yields by 3,564 kg/ha. This statistically significant impact is equivalent to a 51% increase relative to the control group. There is a statistically significant fall in pesticide costs, 7,175 Taka per hectare (85 USD per ha), a 37.5% reduction. Yield increases arise because Bt farmers harvest more eggplant and because fewer fruits are discarded because they are damaged. Bt brinjal farmers sell more eggplant and receive a higher price for the output they sell while incurring lower input costs, resulting in a 128% increase in net revenues. Bt brinjal farmers used smaller quantities of pesticides and sprayed less frequently. Bt brinjal reduced the toxicity of pesticides as much as 76%. Farmers growing Bt brinjal and who had pre‐existing chronic conditions consistent with pesticide poisoning were 11.5% points less likely to report a symptom of pesticide poisoning and were less likely to incur cash medical expenses to treat these symptoms. Our results are robust to changes in model specification and adjustment for multiple hypothesis testing. We did not find evidence of heterogeneous effects by farmer age, schooling, or land cultivated. Bt brinjal is a publicly developed genetically modified organism that conveys significant productivity and income benefits while reducing the use of pesticides damaging to human and ecological health.

Commercialization of agricultural research and biotechnology stakeholder consultation workshops: Final report

From December 6-10, 2020, USAID organized and IFPRI facilitated five virtual stakeholder consultation workshops on agricultural research and biotechnology, bringing together relevant stakeholders involved in crop and non-crop agriculture from Barishal, Cox’s Bazar, Dhaka, Jashore, and Khulna districts in southern Bangladesh. This format aimed to capture the views and perceptions of a range of relevant actors on the status, opportunities and challenges, and recommendations for improving agricultural research and biotechnology. This report presents the subjective views of participants who are affected by and have a stake in these discussions, from value chain actors who have had challenges cultivating certain varieties and raising certain breeds due to climate-related challenges to researchers who are developing new varieties and breeds accounting for these ground-level challenges. Although the authors have substantiated parts of this report with primary and secondary data sources, the major thrust of this report is to communicate perspectives as they were framed during the workshops. Although stakeholder responses reflect varying knowledge levels of biotechnology among participants, some of which may be convoluted or inaccurate, this report preserves the diversity of stakeholder input as an honest reflection of the opinions received.

Food systems for healthier diets in Bangladesh: Towards a research agenda

The national food system of Bangladesh has made substantial progress since experiencing famine in 1974, soon after independence. After the famine, the government placed a strong emphasis on policies required to attain grain self-sufficiency; since attaining self-sufficiency, the production system, policies related to it, and resulting diets have begun to diversify. Nonetheless, undernutrition remains a problem, and fruit and vegetable consumption are inadequate for most people relative to international recommendations. Moreover, as the food system has begun to transition towards a modern one, challenges related to food safety and perceived food adulteration have begun to rise. Further, increased processed food intakes are potentially associated with existing rising overweight and obesity status. Both government interventions and innovations are needed to help shift the national food system to improve nutrient-dense food availability, particularly among the poor, and to limit the increase in processed food consumption.

Impacts of bt brinjal (eggplant) technology in Bangladesh

This study examines the impact of genetically modified (GM) eggplant in Bangladesh. Eggplant, called brinjal in Bangladesh, is a high-value crop that is widely grown and consumed. Brinjal is highly vulnerable to fruit and shoot borer (FSB) pest. In response, farmers spray the crop heavily and repeatedly with highly toxic pesticides but with limited success. Over a 10-year period, public sector Bangladeshi agricultural researchers, with support from Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Co. Pvt. Ltd. (Mahyco) and researchers based in the United States, have developed a series of GM varieties of Bt brinjal that are resistant to FSB. Extensive biosafety work has demonstrated that there are no significant differences between Bt brinjal and its non-GM counterparts (APAARI 2018). Following regulatory review, Bangladesh approved Bt brinjal for human consumption (APAARI 2018). Other studies suggest that these varieties convey higher yields with lower applications of pesticides. The introduction of GM crops remains controversial in Bangladesh and globally. Frequent criticisms include claims that they are harmful to the environment, damaging to human health, and inaccessible to small farmers for cost or intellectual property reasons. It is also claimed that GM crops (including Bt brinjal) convey no yield benefits, with critics noting that much of the work on economic benefits was based on observational data rather than randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Furthermore, research on GM crops is perceived to be industry-influenced or biased in some way.

Economic and health impacts of genetically modified eggplant: Results from a randomized controlled trial of Bt brinjal in Bangladesh

In this paper, we assess the impacts of genetically modified eggplant, Bt brinjal, on economic and health outcomes in Bangladesh using a cluster randomized controlled design. Bt brinjal cultivation reduces the cost of pesticide use by 47 percent. This is driven by reductions in the use of pesticides with adverse ecological impacts by 82 percent, and reductions in the use of pesticides with adverse effects on farmer health by 23 percent. Individuals who had a preexisting chronic condition consistent with pesticide exposure and who lived in villages randomly selected to grow Bt brinjal were 11.5 percentage points less likely to report a symptom of pesticide exposure and were 11 percentage points less likely to incur cash medical expenses to treat these symptoms. Net yields were 42 percent higher for Bt brinjal farmers, and our descriptive distributional work suggests that these yield gains are widespread. The differences in net yields were driven by two outcomes: the quantity harvested was higher on Bt brinjal fields, by 114 kilograms per farmer; and after harvesting, fewer fruits were discarded because of damage due to pests and diseases, by 40 kilograms per farmer. Increased production, together with a 14 percent increase in price and a 10 percent reduction in costs, leads to a substantial increase in profits from cultivating Bt brinjal for treatment farmers compared with conventional brinjal produced by control farmers. Bt brinjal is a publicly developed GMO that conveys significant health benefits, both human and ecological, while raising farmer incomes.

2018 IFPRI annual report

IFPRI’s 2018 Annual Report shares highlights of our work, which together with partners has helped to develop and tailor knowledge to local contexts, build human and institutional capacity, and support development strategies in many countries around the world. Research findings and policy developments related to fostering climate resilience, agricultural transformation, healthy diets, inclusive and efficient markets, institutions and governance, and gender are presented, along with updates on other IFPRI areas of work.

Bt Brinjal impact assessment: Outcome brochure

Background Agricultural advancements have transformed Bangladesh from a food-deficit to surplus country. Now, agricultural innovations are needed to confront emerging challenges: the slowdown in agricultural growth, low agricultural diversity, the effects of climate change, and a rise in pest infestations and plant diseases, to name a few. Brinjal (eggplant) is a high-value crop widely grown and consumed in Bangladesh. Brinjal is highly vulnerable to the fruit and shoot borer pest, and farmers spray the crop heavily with pesticides. Farmers’ spending on pesticides reduces their income; and increased pesticide use heightens their risk of contracting pesticide-elated illnesses, and facing related medical costs. Developing modern, pest-resistant crop varieties can help tackle these issues. Agricultural biotechnologies such as Bt brinjal hold promise. Although the Government of Bangladesh approved cultivation of 4 Bt varieties in 2013, evidence on their potential is still lacking. What is the Bt Brinjal Study? In 2017–2018, IFPRI and the Government of Bangladesh partnered to estimate the impacts of Bt brinjal on production systems, producer welfare, and health outcomes. The study was designed by IFPRI’s Bangladesh Policy Research and Strategy Support Program (PRSSP), implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture under the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), and coordinated by the Agricultural Policy Support Unit (APSU). Project partners regularly monitored the brinjal plots throughout the implementation period. The Bt brinjal impact assessment was supported by the Government of Bangladesh, the US Agency for International Development (USAID), the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), and Cornell University

Demand for complementary financial and technological tools for managing drought risk

Weather-related production risks remain one of the most serious constraints to agricultural production in much of the developing world. Financial and technological innovations that mitigate these risks have the potential to greatly benefit farmers in areas prone to such risks. In this study we examine farmers’ preferences for two distinct tools that allow them to manage drought risk: weather index insurance and a recently released drought-tolerant rice variety. We illustrate how these tools can independently address drought risk and demonstrate the potential for these tools to be combined in a complementary risk management product. Using a discrete choice experiment, we assess farmers’ preferences for these two tools independently and in a bundled package. Findings indicate that farmers are generally unwilling to pay for drought-tolerant rice independent of insurance, largely due to the yield penalty under normal conditions. When bundled with insurance, however, farmers’ valuation of the rice increases. Farmers value insurance on its own, but even more so when bundled with the drought-tolerant rice variety. The results provide evidence that farmers value the complementarities inherent in a well-calibrated bundle of risk management tools.

Regional developments [In 2014-2015 Global food policy report]

In addition to global developments and food policy changes, 2014 also saw important developments with potentially wide repercussions in individual countries and regions. This chapter offers perspectives on major food policy developments in various regions including Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The individual regional sections cover many critical topics: -Renewed focus on the role of agriculture in broad economic growth, poverty reduction, and food and nutrition security in Africa - Policy reforms in fuel subsidies, agriculture, and food trade in the Middle East and North Africa - Economic challenges and opportunities for Central Asia’s food system - Responses to high food inflation and climatic risk in South Asia - Laying of the groundwork for multilateral cooperation on food policy in East Asia - Progress in South-South learning initiatives in Latin America and the Caribbean tempered by weather and other shocks

Food policy in 2014-2015: Strong advances and stubborn setbacks

The year 2014 saw mixed results for food and nutrition security: some countries made headway on policies to cut hunger, while in other countries conflict and health crises took a heavy human toll. Much of the year’s discourse focused on potential priorities for the future global development agenda.

Farmer preferences for drought tolerance in hybrid versus inbred rice: Evidence from Bihar, India

This paper addresses the previously unanswered question of whether the private sector might play a future role in developing similar strains through applications of advanced biotechnology, and whether their research and development efforts would benefit poor and vulnerable farmers in hazard-prone ecosystems. We employ discrete choice experiments to examine farmers’ preferences for DT traits and explore heterogeneity in these preferences using primary data collected in rural Bihar, India. Using different modeling approaches to capture preference heterogeneity, our results show that farmers value the reduction in yield variability offered by DT cultivars but are willing to pay even more for rice seed that offers yield advantages even under normal conditions.

Farmer preferences for abiotic stress tolerance in hybrid versus inbred rice: Evidence from Bihar, India

Public expenditures, private incentives, and farmer adoption: The economics of hybrid rice in South Asia

Supply and Demand for Cereals in Bangladesh: 2010–2030

In this study we attempt to provide forecasts of the demand and supply of cereals in Bangladesh for the period 2015–2030, focusing on rice the main staple in Bangladeshi diets and also the most important crop in Bangladesh’s agriculture. A detailed model of the supply of rice in the three main rice growing seasons—aman, aus, and boro—is built up through separate acreage and yield functions, which are estimated with data from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. On the demand side, the projections made here consider both direct demand by households and also indirect demand.